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<p>Synthetic musks (SMs) are widely used fragrance compounds in cosmetics, personal care, and household products, resulting in their continuous release into the environment and bioaccumulation in food chains. Polycyclic musks such as HHCB (galaxolide; 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta[g]-2-benzopyran) and AHTN (tonalide; 7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyltetrahydronaphthalene) are frequently detected in fish and shellfish due to wastewater contamination. Despite their ubiquity, harmonized regulatory limits and dietary exposure assessments remain insufficient. This review integrates current knowledge on toxicity, occurrence, analytical methods, and risk characterization of SMs in food. Endocrine, metabolic, and reproductive effects have been observed in aquatic organisms, suggesting potential human health risks. Analytical advances, including gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and solid-phase extraction (SPE), have enhanced detection, but monitoring remains inconsistent. By synthesizing toxicological and occurrence data, this review underscores the need for standardized analytical protocols, refined exposure modeling, and science-based safety thresholds for effective management of SMs as emerging food contaminants.</p> Graphical abstract <p></p>

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Synthetic musks as food contaminants: a comprehensive review of toxicity, analytical challenges, occurrence, and risk assessments

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月14日

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  • Dahui Kim,
  • Choong-In Yun,
  • Jieun Kang,
  • Young-Jun Kim

摘要

Synthetic musks (SMs) are widely used fragrance compounds in cosmetics, personal care, and household products, resulting in their continuous release into the environment and bioaccumulation in food chains. Polycyclic musks such as HHCB (galaxolide; 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta[g]-2-benzopyran) and AHTN (tonalide; 7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyltetrahydronaphthalene) are frequently detected in fish and shellfish due to wastewater contamination. Despite their ubiquity, harmonized regulatory limits and dietary exposure assessments remain insufficient. This review integrates current knowledge on toxicity, occurrence, analytical methods, and risk characterization of SMs in food. Endocrine, metabolic, and reproductive effects have been observed in aquatic organisms, suggesting potential human health risks. Analytical advances, including gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and solid-phase extraction (SPE), have enhanced detection, but monitoring remains inconsistent. By synthesizing toxicological and occurrence data, this review underscores the need for standardized analytical protocols, refined exposure modeling, and science-based safety thresholds for effective management of SMs as emerging food contaminants.

Graphical abstract