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<p>Pharmaceutical contaminants, particularly over-the-counter drugs like Panadol Extra (paracetamol and caffeine), pose emerging threats to aquatic ecosystems. This study evaluated the sublethal hemato-biochemical and genotoxic effects of Panadol Extra on <i>Cyprinus carpio</i> following 14&#xa0;days exposure to graded concentrations (0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2&#xa0;mg/L). Significant, dose-dependent declines were observed in hematological indices including WBCs, RBCs, Hb, and platelets, while MCH increased selectively, indicating hemato-toxicity. Biochemical analysis revealed elevated glucose and cholesterol levels, particularly at higher doses, alongside significant alterations in kidney function markers (urea and creatinine). Electrolyte imbalance, marked by increased Na⁺ and reduced Ca<sup>2</sup>⁺, K⁺, and P levels, suggested disrupted osmoregulatory function. Genotoxicity was confirmed through erythrocytic nuclear abnormalities (ENAs) such as micronuclei, blebbed, vacuolated, and binucleated cells, which increased significantly at concentrations ≥ 1&#xa0;mg/L. To better understand the inter-biomarker relationships, Pearson correlation matrix analysis was performed, revealing strong associations between hematological and biochemical disruptions. PCA effectively distinguished control and exposed groups and identified key contributing parameters to Panadol Extra toxicity. These findings demonstrate the compound’s sublethal yet ecologically relevant toxicity in freshwater species and support the integration of multivariate tools in environmental risk assessment of pharmaceutical pollutants.</p>

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Multivariate assessment of sublethal Panadol Extra toxicity in Cyprinus carpio using hemato-biochemical and genotoxic markers

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年3月24日

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  • Sardar Maria Arshad,
  • Shehzad Ghayyur,
  • Rehan Ullah,
  • Muhammad Fiaz Khan,
  • Shams Ul Samad,
  • Shahryar Ghayyur

摘要

Pharmaceutical contaminants, particularly over-the-counter drugs like Panadol Extra (paracetamol and caffeine), pose emerging threats to aquatic ecosystems. This study evaluated the sublethal hemato-biochemical and genotoxic effects of Panadol Extra on Cyprinus carpio following 14 days exposure to graded concentrations (0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 mg/L). Significant, dose-dependent declines were observed in hematological indices including WBCs, RBCs, Hb, and platelets, while MCH increased selectively, indicating hemato-toxicity. Biochemical analysis revealed elevated glucose and cholesterol levels, particularly at higher doses, alongside significant alterations in kidney function markers (urea and creatinine). Electrolyte imbalance, marked by increased Na⁺ and reduced Ca2⁺, K⁺, and P levels, suggested disrupted osmoregulatory function. Genotoxicity was confirmed through erythrocytic nuclear abnormalities (ENAs) such as micronuclei, blebbed, vacuolated, and binucleated cells, which increased significantly at concentrations ≥ 1 mg/L. To better understand the inter-biomarker relationships, Pearson correlation matrix analysis was performed, revealing strong associations between hematological and biochemical disruptions. PCA effectively distinguished control and exposed groups and identified key contributing parameters to Panadol Extra toxicity. These findings demonstrate the compound’s sublethal yet ecologically relevant toxicity in freshwater species and support the integration of multivariate tools in environmental risk assessment of pharmaceutical pollutants.