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<p>Interaction between the cloud radiative effect (CRE) and sea surface temperature (SST) is central to cloud–climate feedback. Using Liang–Kleeman information flow and cloud-controlling factor analyses, we find that CRE–SST interactions are strongly dependent on both temporal and spatial scales. At ~ 1-day scales, the causality from SST to CRE dominates the interaction; by ~ 2–3&#xa0;days it reverses, and beyond ~ 6&#xa0;days it stabilizes with CRE → SST consistently exceeding SST → CRE, marking a transition from fast atmospheric adjustment to slower oceanic response. Despite this shift in directionality, the interaction remains persistent positive feedback across scales. Coupling strength is further modulated by mesoscale ocean–atmosphere processes, global warming, and strong ENSO events. In key regions such as the tropical central–eastern Pacific and stratocumulus decks, CRE variability may feed back onto climate events, influencing their persistence and intensity. Our findings reveal that CRE–SST interaction is fundamentally scale-dependent and shaped by both mesoscale processes and large-scale climate variability.</p>

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Multi-scale and time-varying characteristics of cloud radiative effect and sea surface temperature interaction

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年1月20日

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  • Yu Wang,
  • Zhongfeng Qiu,
  • Biao Zhang

摘要

Interaction between the cloud radiative effect (CRE) and sea surface temperature (SST) is central to cloud–climate feedback. Using Liang–Kleeman information flow and cloud-controlling factor analyses, we find that CRE–SST interactions are strongly dependent on both temporal and spatial scales. At ~ 1-day scales, the causality from SST to CRE dominates the interaction; by ~ 2–3 days it reverses, and beyond ~ 6 days it stabilizes with CRE → SST consistently exceeding SST → CRE, marking a transition from fast atmospheric adjustment to slower oceanic response. Despite this shift in directionality, the interaction remains persistent positive feedback across scales. Coupling strength is further modulated by mesoscale ocean–atmosphere processes, global warming, and strong ENSO events. In key regions such as the tropical central–eastern Pacific and stratocumulus decks, CRE variability may feed back onto climate events, influencing their persistence and intensity. Our findings reveal that CRE–SST interaction is fundamentally scale-dependent and shaped by both mesoscale processes and large-scale climate variability.