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<p>Apples are a widely consumed fruit valued for their rich content of health-promoting phytochemicals, including carotenoids, flavonoids, isoflavonoids, and phenolic acids. Consumption of apples has been linked to reduced risks of several chronic diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular conditions, and asthma. The chemical composition and quality of apple fruit are strongly influenced by the dynamic interactions between environmental factors and secondary metabolic pathways throughout development from flowering to ripening. This review summarizes the latest research on how temperature, light, soil composition, and biotic stressors affect key developmental stages, with an emphasis on the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites such as phenolic compounds, flavonoids, carotenoids, terpenoids, and anthocyanins. These compounds are regulated through complex networks involving phytohormones, transcription factors, and epigenetic modifications. It also highlights recent biotechnological advances, including CRISPR/Cas9 and RNA-directed DNA methylation, to improve fruit quality and stress resilience. By integrating genetic, epigenetic, and environmental perspectives, this review offers strategic insights to mitigate the impacts of climate change on apple production. Its novelty lies in providing a comprehensive framework to guide breeders, growers, and researchers in optimizing fruit quality and functionality across all stages of development.</p>

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Environmental Variables Affecting Apple Fruit Development and Bioactive Compounds: Biochemical Insights and Biotechnological Advances

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2025年9月7日

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  • Shivanti Negi,
  • Pankaj Kumar,
  • Anshul Kumar,
  • Vinay Kumar,
  • Mohammad Irfan

摘要

Apples are a widely consumed fruit valued for their rich content of health-promoting phytochemicals, including carotenoids, flavonoids, isoflavonoids, and phenolic acids. Consumption of apples has been linked to reduced risks of several chronic diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular conditions, and asthma. The chemical composition and quality of apple fruit are strongly influenced by the dynamic interactions between environmental factors and secondary metabolic pathways throughout development from flowering to ripening. This review summarizes the latest research on how temperature, light, soil composition, and biotic stressors affect key developmental stages, with an emphasis on the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites such as phenolic compounds, flavonoids, carotenoids, terpenoids, and anthocyanins. These compounds are regulated through complex networks involving phytohormones, transcription factors, and epigenetic modifications. It also highlights recent biotechnological advances, including CRISPR/Cas9 and RNA-directed DNA methylation, to improve fruit quality and stress resilience. By integrating genetic, epigenetic, and environmental perspectives, this review offers strategic insights to mitigate the impacts of climate change on apple production. Its novelty lies in providing a comprehensive framework to guide breeders, growers, and researchers in optimizing fruit quality and functionality across all stages of development.