Embryonic risk cues in wood frog: effect in hatching time, morphology and behaviour
摘要
Predation is an important selective force. For prey to accurately mitigate their current predation risk, it is vital that they obtain reliable and updated information from their environment. Chemical information, such as alarm cues and disturbance cues, play an important role in risk assessment for aquatic species. Alarm cues are chemicals released by prey that have been attacked and damaged by a predator, while disturbance cues are released by uninjured distressed prey. Both cues are detected during the embryonic and post embryonic stages in amphibians. Alarm cues can be produced in the embryonic stage and can affect the morphology and hatching time of embryos. However, the way the exposure to embryonic alarm cues affects post-embryonic antipredator behaviour is unknown. Also, it is unknown if embryos can produce disturbance cues. Using wood frog (Lithobates sylvaticus) embryos, we explored the existence of embryonic disturbance cues and its effect on hatching time, morphology (shape and size) and post-embryonic antipredator behaviour, as well as the effect of embryonic alarm cues. We found that embryonic disturbance cues and embryonic alarm cues caused delayed hatching, and decreased size of tadpoles. Embryonic disturbance cues also caused a decrease in response to larval alarm cues. Embryonic disturbance cues and embryonic alarm cues are used by embryos to assess the risk in their environment. This study is the first to examine the production of embryonic disturbance cues and their effect, providing data to better understand the ecological implications of disturbance cues during the embryonic stage.