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<p>Powder delivery is a critical stage in powder-based directed energy deposition (DED), directly influencing deposition stability, repeatability, and powder utilization efficiency. This study systematically compares the feeding behavior of two dissimilar powders, SS316L and CuSn10, under identical operating conditions using high-speed imaging, particle image velocimetry (PIV), and one-way coupled CFD–DEM simulations. First, powder mass flow rate was calibrated as a function of feeder rotational speed and carrier gas flow rate. Flowability measurements revealed that CuSn10 exhibited a higher Hall flow rate and bulk density than SS316L, consistent with the higher delivered mass flow rates obtained under identical feeder settings. Subsequently, the effects of powder feed rate, carrier gas flow rate, and shielding gas flow rate on powder stream characteristics, including intensity, focal distance, waist, convergence angle, and particle velocity, were evaluated within the stable feeding regime. The results showed that CuSn10 achieved higher particle velocities, whereas SS316L formed a more concentrated powder stream. Among the investigated parameters, the carrier gas flow rate exerted the strongest influence on particle transport and stream convergence. A material-dependent response to shielding gas flow was also observed: increasing the shielding gas flow rate increased the focal distance of SS316L from 4.96 to 5.36&#xa0;mm, while decreasing the focal distance of CuSn10 from 5.75 to 5.51&#xa0;mm. Higher powder feed rates increased stream intensity but also broadened the stream waist in the focal region due to enhanced particle–particle interactions. CFD–DEM simulations successfully reproduced the experimental trends and showed that SS316L particles were more sensitive to gas-flow-induced drag, whereas the larger and denser CuSn10 particles followed more stable trajectories. Simulations of binary powder mixtures further revealed that CuSn10-rich compositions produced the most stable powder streams, while equimass (50/50 wt%) mixtures exhibited the most complex particle interactions. These findings provide fundamental insights into material-dependent powder transport behavior and establish a framework for optimizing powder delivery in multi-material DED processes.</p>

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Comparative investigation of powder stream behavior of SS316L and CuSn10 in powder-based directed energy deposition

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月2日

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  • Yeldar Otynshiyev,
  • Alikhan Kalmakhanbet,
  • Moldir Amanbay,
  • Yi Nie,
  • Christos Spitas,
  • Boris Golman

摘要

Powder delivery is a critical stage in powder-based directed energy deposition (DED), directly influencing deposition stability, repeatability, and powder utilization efficiency. This study systematically compares the feeding behavior of two dissimilar powders, SS316L and CuSn10, under identical operating conditions using high-speed imaging, particle image velocimetry (PIV), and one-way coupled CFD–DEM simulations. First, powder mass flow rate was calibrated as a function of feeder rotational speed and carrier gas flow rate. Flowability measurements revealed that CuSn10 exhibited a higher Hall flow rate and bulk density than SS316L, consistent with the higher delivered mass flow rates obtained under identical feeder settings. Subsequently, the effects of powder feed rate, carrier gas flow rate, and shielding gas flow rate on powder stream characteristics, including intensity, focal distance, waist, convergence angle, and particle velocity, were evaluated within the stable feeding regime. The results showed that CuSn10 achieved higher particle velocities, whereas SS316L formed a more concentrated powder stream. Among the investigated parameters, the carrier gas flow rate exerted the strongest influence on particle transport and stream convergence. A material-dependent response to shielding gas flow was also observed: increasing the shielding gas flow rate increased the focal distance of SS316L from 4.96 to 5.36 mm, while decreasing the focal distance of CuSn10 from 5.75 to 5.51 mm. Higher powder feed rates increased stream intensity but also broadened the stream waist in the focal region due to enhanced particle–particle interactions. CFD–DEM simulations successfully reproduced the experimental trends and showed that SS316L particles were more sensitive to gas-flow-induced drag, whereas the larger and denser CuSn10 particles followed more stable trajectories. Simulations of binary powder mixtures further revealed that CuSn10-rich compositions produced the most stable powder streams, while equimass (50/50 wt%) mixtures exhibited the most complex particle interactions. These findings provide fundamental insights into material-dependent powder transport behavior and establish a framework for optimizing powder delivery in multi-material DED processes.