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<p>This study presents an analytical model for steady-state power generation and tool heat loss in additive friction-stir deposition (AFSD), developed to enable part-scale thermal simulation while remaining computationally inexpensive. The model predicts total generated power, yielding 3.7–4.7&#xa0;kW across deposition temperature setpoints of 400–460&#xa0;°C for the deposition of AA6061 with a Be-Cu tool. This corresponds to 90–95% of the reported spindle power. Tool heat loss is experimentally determined by calibrating a steady-state energy balance between the generated power, the substrate-deposition thermal gradient, and a temperature dependent tool heat loss term: <InlineEquation ID="IEq1"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">\(\:{q}_{tool}\left(T\right)=a+b\left(T-400\:^\circ\:C\right)\)</EquationSource> </InlineEquation> with <InlineEquation ID="IEq2"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">\(\:a=2.7\times\:{10}^{6}\:\text{W}{\:\text{m}}^{-2}\)</EquationSource> </InlineEquation> and <InlineEquation ID="IEq3"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">\(\:b=9.5\times\:{10}^{3}\:\text{W}{\:\text{m}}^{-2}{\text{K}}^{-1}\)</EquationSource> </InlineEquation>. The calibration indicates that about 69% of the generated heat is conducted into the tool for this configuration, which is much higher than previously reported. The calibrated heat-source is implemented in finite element software (<i>Adamantine</i>) to simulate the transient thermal history of a 100 cm<sup>3</sup> representative build in 8&#xa0;min on a standard desktop (at 0.635&#xa0;mm build-height resolution). For the first three layers, the substrate temperatures between simulation and experiment are within 10% mean absolute percentage error. Sensitivity analysis indicates that uncertainties in average deposition temperature and deformation localization (stir-zone geometry, depth, and spatial dependance of strain-rate and flow stress) dominate model variance, motivating additional experimental verification.</p>

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Computationally inexpensive part-scale thermal history of additive friction-stir deposition

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年4月7日

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  • Cole Franz,
  • Rob Patterson,
  • Bruno Turcksin,
  • Tony Schmitz,
  • Katharine Page

摘要

This study presents an analytical model for steady-state power generation and tool heat loss in additive friction-stir deposition (AFSD), developed to enable part-scale thermal simulation while remaining computationally inexpensive. The model predicts total generated power, yielding 3.7–4.7 kW across deposition temperature setpoints of 400–460 °C for the deposition of AA6061 with a Be-Cu tool. This corresponds to 90–95% of the reported spindle power. Tool heat loss is experimentally determined by calibrating a steady-state energy balance between the generated power, the substrate-deposition thermal gradient, and a temperature dependent tool heat loss term: \(\:{q}_{tool}\left(T\right)=a+b\left(T-400\:^\circ\:C\right)\) with \(\:a=2.7\times\:{10}^{6}\:\text{W}{\:\text{m}}^{-2}\) and \(\:b=9.5\times\:{10}^{3}\:\text{W}{\:\text{m}}^{-2}{\text{K}}^{-1}\) . The calibration indicates that about 69% of the generated heat is conducted into the tool for this configuration, which is much higher than previously reported. The calibrated heat-source is implemented in finite element software (Adamantine) to simulate the transient thermal history of a 100 cm3 representative build in 8 min on a standard desktop (at 0.635 mm build-height resolution). For the first three layers, the substrate temperatures between simulation and experiment are within 10% mean absolute percentage error. Sensitivity analysis indicates that uncertainties in average deposition temperature and deformation localization (stir-zone geometry, depth, and spatial dependance of strain-rate and flow stress) dominate model variance, motivating additional experimental verification.