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<p>The Schwarzschild solution was the first exact solution to Einstein’s 1915 field equations, found by Karl Schwarzschild as early as 1916. And yet, physicists, mathematicians and philosophers have struggled for decades with the interpretation of the Schwarzschild solution and the two singularities appearing in it when it is written in polar coordinates. This article distinguishes between eight different ways in which the two singularities have been interpreted between 1916 and the late 1960s, when Penrose’s first singularity theorem shed new and lasting light on the interpretation of the Schwarzschild solution.</p>

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The Prediction and Interpretation of Singularities and Black Holes: From Einstein and Schwarzschild to Penrose and Wheeler

  • 期刊论文

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  • 发表日期：

    2025年6月1日

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  • Dennis Lehmkuhl

摘要

The Schwarzschild solution was the first exact solution to Einstein’s 1915 field equations, found by Karl Schwarzschild as early as 1916. And yet, physicists, mathematicians and philosophers have struggled for decades with the interpretation of the Schwarzschild solution and the two singularities appearing in it when it is written in polar coordinates. This article distinguishes between eight different ways in which the two singularities have been interpreted between 1916 and the late 1960s, when Penrose’s first singularity theorem shed new and lasting light on the interpretation of the Schwarzschild solution.