<p>Many countries worldwide are transitioning from a hazard-based to a risk-based assessment of pesticide products for authorisation. The decision whether the risk of an operator handling a specific pesticide product is acceptable or not requires adequate exposure models to estimate the potential exposure of pesticide product users. Reliable and robust models exist for tractor-mounted spray equipment but there has been less data available for handheld spray equipment, which remains the prevalent technique used by the majority of pesticide users worldwide. The objective of this initiative was to develop improved modelling tools for handheld applications using available exposure data for operators mixing/loading and/or applying pesticide products with handheld equipment. Relevant exposure studies were collected and reviewed. In total, 55 studies covering applications outdoors as well as in greenhouses were accepted for the development of a new global database. Parameters such as amount of pesticide active substance handled, formulation type or spray direction were analysed and selected using both statistical methods and expert knowledge. Separate regression models were developed for the mixing/loading task and for the application tasks with the amount of pesticide active substance handled being the main factor of exposure. The models allow to mitigate dermal exposure by selection of total or partial body clothing layers and to mitigate hand exposure by applying protective gloves. A robust modelling approach was developed based on the most substantial database for hand-held equipment compiled so far. The models have been incorporated in a risk assessment and mitigation tool that was reviewed and endorsed for inclusion in the food and agriculture organization (FAO) pesticide registration toolkit.</p>